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Traditional Way
of Life
Among the elements of the traditional ways of life of Native Americans are their social and political organization, their economic and other activities, and their religions, languages, and art.
Social
organization among Native Americans was and is based largely on the family.
Some Native American societies emphasize the economic cooperation of husband
and wife, others that of adult brothers and sisters.
The smallest
societies were historically found in regions that are poor in food resources.
Examples include the Cree and the Athabascan-language peoples of the Canadian
Subarctic, the Paiute of the Nevada desert, and the Ona and Yahgan of Tierra
del Fuego. When agriculture was possible, communities were larger, from one or
two hundred to thousands of people. In most of what is now the United States,
people lived in villages and formed a loosely organized alliance with nearby
villages. The alliance and each village were governed by councils; village
councils usually consisted of representatives from each family, and the
alliance council was made up of representatives from the villages. The council
selected a man or, in some areas (especially the North American south-east), a
woman to act as chief—that is, to preside over the council and act as principal
liaison in dealing with other groups. In many areas families in the villages
were linked together in clans. Clans usually owned resources such as
agricultural plots and fishing stations; they allotted these as needed to member
families and protected their members. Similar societies became common in the
tropical forest culture area of South America.
In pre-Columbian
times in Mesoamerica and the Andes of South America, kingdoms that had hundreds
of thousands of subjects, stratified in classes, and empires with millions of
subjects were established. Citizens supported the state religion, although in
the empires local religious observances were sometimes permitted to coexist
with the state religion. War captives and debtors often became slaves. The Inca
state in Peru was tightly organized and controlled, moving people and even
whole villages around the empire to meet its needs. In Mesoamerican kingdoms,
on the other hand, clan-like local groups were generally allowed limited power.
On first
encountering Native American societies, Europeans frequently did not understand
their organization; subsequently, the native organization was modified by the
British or Spanish conquerors. In North America, Europeans failed to recognize
the respect and power accorded to women of the Iroquois, Creek, and a number of
other peoples. In California, Europeans who saw the local upper class living in
thatch houses and wearing little clothing failed to understand that the
region's native communities had different social classes and highly organized
ownership of property.
Since at least
2000 BC, most Native Americans
have lived by agriculture. Maize was the most common grain, but certain
grain-like plants were also popular—maize and potato, as well as peanuts,
chilli peppers, cotton, cacao (chocolate), avocados, and many others,
were domesticated and developed as crops by Native Americans.
Livestock was less
important to Native Americans than to peoples on other continents. Protein was
often obtained from plants, especially beans, in the southern cultures, while
throughout the Americas additional protein was obtained from fish and game
animals, especially deer. Techniques of food preparation varied according to
the type of food and the culture area. Techniques of drying foods, including
meats, have always been important. In pre-Hispanic Mesoamerica and the Andes,
nobles indulged in elaborate feasts of richly prepared dishes.
In their
traditional clothing Native Americans differed from Europeans in that they
placed less importance on completely covering the body. The peoples of warm
climates, for example, often did not wear much clothing except at festivals;
then they adorned themselves with flowers and paint, and often with intricate
feather headdresses. In Mesoamerica and Peru, men wore a breechcloth and a
cloak knotted over one shoulder, and women wore a skirt and a loose blouse;
these garments were woven of cotton or, in Peru, sometimes of fine vicuña
wool. North American hunting peoples made garments of well-tanned deer, elk, or
caribou skin; a common style was a tunic, longer for women than for men, with
detachable sleeves and leggings. In the Arctic, the Inuit and Aleuts wore
parkas, trousers, and boots of caribou or, when needed, of waterproof fish
skin. Except in Canada and Alaska, where parkas and coats were worn, Native
Americans in cold weather usually wrapped themselves in robes, cloaks, or
ponchos.
Some Native
American houses that appear simple, such as the Inuit igloo or the
Florida Seminole chikee, are quite sophisticated: The igloo
(Inuit for “house”), usually made of hide or sod over a wood or whalebone
frame, is a dome with a sunken entrance that traps heat indoors but allows
ventilation; the chikee, naturally air-conditioned, consists of a thatch roof
over an open platform. The tepee of the Plains peoples constitutes efficient
housing for people who must move camp to hunt; tepees are easily portable and
quickly erected or taken down, and an inner liner hung from midway up the tepee
allows ventilation without drafts, so that the enclosed space is comfortable
even in winter.
Some peoples in
cold climates that were well supplied with wood, such as the peoples of Tierra
del Fuego and the Subarctic Athabascan-language peoples, relied on windbreaks
with good fires in front, rather than on tents. Many other peoples spent cold
weather in dome-shaped houses that were sunk well into the ground for
insulation.
Mesoamerican and
Andean peoples constructed buildings of stone and cement as well as of wood and
adobe. Public buildings and the houses of the upper class were usually built on
raised-earth platforms, with a large number of rooms arranged around atria and
courtyards.
To all Native
Americans, trade was an important economic activity. The early empire of
Teotihuacán in Mexico was founded on the manufacture and export of blades of
obsidian, a natural volcanic glass that made the best stone knives. Several
centuries later, the Aztecs organized their conquests by sending merchants into
other kingdoms to develop trade, act as spies, and help plan conquest if the
foreign ruler failed to give favourable terms to Aztec trade. In the Inca
Empire excellent highways were built over difficult mountain terrain in order
to move quantities of local speciality products in pack trains of llamas. Trade
was also conducted by sea along South America and around Mexico and the
Caribbean. Much sea trade was carried in large sailing rafts or, in the
Caribbean, in canoes made from huge logs. Trade goods in Mesoamerica and the
Andes included foodstuffs, manufactured items such as cloth, knives, and
pottery, and luxuries such as jewellery, brilliant tropical bird feathers, and
chocolate. Both medicinal and hallucinogenic drugs were widely traded. Goods
were bought and sold in large open markets in towns and cities.
Outside the
kingdoms of Mesoamerica and the Andes, trade was often carried on by travelling
parties who were received in each village by its chief, who supervised business
as the people gathered around the trader. In many areas, small shells or shell
beads—called wampum in the Eastern Woodlands—were used as money. Furs and
brightly coloured feathers were valued in trade nearly everywhere. In western
North America dried salmon, fish oil, and fine baskets were major trade
products, and in eastern North America expertly tanned deer hides, copper,
catlinite pipe-bowl stone, pearls, and conch shells were widely traded.
The games and
other recreational activities of Native Americans have had much in common with
those of peoples elsewhere. Children traditionally played with dolls and with miniature
figures and implements, imitating adult activities; in groups they played tag,
the one who was “it” often pretending to be a jaguar or similar animal. Youths
and adults played games with balls—rubber balls in Mesoamerica and northern
South America, hide or fibre balls elsewhere. The Mesoamerican ball game called
tlatchtli was somewhat similar to basketball in that it was played in a
rectangular court and had the goal of knocking a hard ball through a stone hoop
high on the court wall. In Mesoamerica these ball games often were seen as
rituals of cosmic significance. Lacrosse was popular in the eastern region of
North America and eventually was adopted by European settlers. Competitions—in
foot racing, wrestling, archery, and, after the Spanish invasions, horse
racing—were generally popular. Minor amusements that are still popular include cat's
cradle and the use of tops and swings.
Native American
religious beliefs and practices display great diversity.
The Mexican and Andean
nations, the peoples of the North American South-west and South-east, and some
North-west Pacific Coast peoples had full-time religious leaders as well as
shrines or temple buildings. Peoples of other areas had part-time priests and
generally lacked permanent temples. Part-time priests and shamans learned to
conduct ceremonies by apprenticing themselves to older practitioners; in the
larger nations priests were trained in schools attached to the temples.
Most Native
Americans believed i spiritual force that is the source of all life. In many
areas of the Americas, divine force was recognized in several aspects: as light
and life-power, focused in the sun; as fertility and strength, centred in the
earth; as wisdom and the power of earthly rulers, observed in creatures such as
the jaguar, the bear, or snakes. In most places in the Americas, religious
devotees enhanced their ability to perceive aspects of the Almighty, sometimes
by using hallucinogenic plants as in Peyotism, or sometimes by fasting and singing
prayers until they achieved a spiritual vision.
Native American
traditions generally assumed that the souls of the dead go to another part of
the universe, where they have a pleasant existence carrying on everyday
activities. Souls of unhappy or evil people might stay around their former
homes, causing misfortunes. Many Native American peoples have celebrated an
annual memorial service for deceased relatives; in Latin America this
observance later became fused with the Christian All Souls' Day. Northern
public rituals included the Sun Dance and the Snake Dance.
A Powwow, Wacipi in the Dakota Language, was
originally a spring event to celebrate the seasonal renewal of new life. People
would congregate to sing, dance, renew old friendships and form new ones.
Powwows had religious significance as opportunities to hold a naming, now
usually conducted in the privacy of a family gathering, and honoring
ceremonies. In the Dakota/Lakota tradition, the celebration was also a prayer to
Wakantanka ( the Great Spirit, Grandfather or Great Mystery) . The term
"powwow" is traced to the Algonquin language.
Powwows are still very much a part of the lives
of many Native Americans around the state and country and are held every
weekend, often at several locations during peak periods, from June until
September. Many families "go on the circuit', camp out and enjoy the
traditional activities. Competitive singing and dancing, relatively recent
changes, are often featured.
The circle, an important symbol to Native
American people, is used extensively in powwows. The dancers are in the center,
the drums and the audience circle around them and the concessions surround the
gathering. The powwow brings the circle of people closer to family, friends and
the comfort and vitality of their culture.
The Grand Entry is the parade of dancers which
opens each session of powwow dancing. The Eagle Staff is carried into the
circle, followed by the American, Canadian, state and tribal flags. Title
holders from tribal pageants and invited dignitaries are next. The men follow,
traditional dancers first, grass dancers, fancy shawl dancers and jingle dress
dancers. Junior boys, then junior girls follow in the same order. Last come the
little boys and the little girls.The dancers perform clockwise or sun-wise
around the arbor. Their outfits (the term "costume" is seen by some
as derogatory) and their steps let the audience and other participants know who
they are and what they can do. After the grand entry there is a flag song, then
an invocation blessing the gathering. The Eagle Staff, positioned above the
American flag to signify the first nation, is tied to the pole in the center or
brought to the announcer's stand. The dancing then begins.
Songs are created and performed for different
events such as grand entries, dance categories and honoring ceremonies. While
they differ in tempo, words and emotions, all powwow songs follow a similar
structure. There are songs for all occasions: honor songs, veteran songs and
war party songs. Many pre-reservation songs have been put aside in favor of a
flood of new ones. Song groups sing only their own songs while others borrow
songs and perform their own as well. The songs are not written, but tape
recorded, and then they are learned by both singers and dancers. Singers are
not judged by the sweetness of their voices. In the northern plains the higher
parts are sung falsetto and the melody gains energy and rhythm as the voice
descends. The sound is produced at the back of an open mouth and throat . The
volume and quality of voice depend largely on well-developed abdominal muscles.
Women sing an octave higher and sometimes join the men. Women may
"trill" at special places in the song to indicate deep emotion such
as joy or appreciation of the song.
(Spectators stand with head
uncovered.)
Honor songs are requested to honor a person such as a returning son or a
deceased relative or people or for almost any occasion. Some people have their
own honor songs while others use "generic" ones. A drum from the
honored person's home or a favorite may be requested.
9.
Dances
Notwithstanding
the exaggerated European stereotype that Native Americans were extremely warlike,
wars between Native American groups did take place before the European
invasions. Most Native Americans fought in small groups, relying on surprise to
give them victory. The large nations of Mexico and Peru sometimes relied on
surprise attacks by armies, but their soldiers also fought in disciplined
ranks. The Aztecs fought formal battles called “flower wars” with neighbouring
peoples; the purpose was to capture men for sacrifice (the Aztecs believed that
the sun would weaken if it were not fed with human blood). Other native peoples
conducted war raids to obtain captives, but these captives were used as slaves.
Some Native American battles were fought for revenge. The most common cause of
war between Native American groups was probably to defend or enlarge tribal
territory.
Before the Spanish
colonizations, warfare was conducted on foot or from canoes. Both the Mexican
and the Andean nations, as well as smaller Native American groups, employed
hand-to-hand combat with clubs, battle axes, and daggers, as well as
close-range combat with javelins hurled with great force from spear-thrower
boards (known as atlatls). Bows and arrows were used in attacks, and
fire arrows were used against thatched-house villages. When the Spanish brought
horses to the New World, native peoples in both North and South America
developed techniques of raiding from horseback.
.
Nearly all the
major technologies known in Europe, Asia, and Africa in the 16th century were
known also to Native Americans before European contact, but these technologies
were not always used in the same way. For example, although the Andean nations
had superb metallurgists, they made few metal tools (people used stone tools
for most tasks); instead they applied their skills to creating magnificent
ornaments. The result was magnificent pre-Columbian art and architecture.
The earliest
American art known to archaeologists is flint knapping, or the chipping
of stone. Between about 9000 and 6000 BC,
stone spear and dart points were produced with great skill. Although flint
knapping eventually declined somewhat in other culture areas, in Mesoamerica
the art of chipping flint and, especially, obsidian continued to be highly
prized. In the Late Archaic period, after 3000 BC, the pecking and grinding (rather than chipping) of stone
developed into an art. Between about 1500 and 400 BC in Mesoamerica, the Olmec made small ornaments of
semi-precious stones, as well as fine naturalistic and in-the-round stone
sculptures that were close to or larger than life size.
In architecture,
the pre-Hispanic Andean nations developed stone masonry to a high degree, fitting
smoothed stone blocks together so expertly that no mortar was needed for walls
that have stood for more than a thousand years. The Mesoamerican peoples also
built in stone, and they preferred to cover their buildings in stucco plaster
and adorn them with murals.
The earliest
pottery in the Americas was made about 3500 BC.
By 2000 BC several known styles
of ceramics had emerged, and in the wares of the following centuries everyday
cooking pottery can be distinguished from fine serving pieces. Among
outstanding styles are the Mayan vessels painted with scenes of royalty and
mythology.
Ever since its
beginnings as an Archaic-period art form in the Americas (by about 8000 BC or perhaps earlier), basketry
continued to develop, reaching its finest levels of achievement in western
North America. In most parts of the Americas several basketry techniques were
known, among them weaving, twining, and coiling; decorative techniques included
embroidery and the use of bright feathers, shells, and beads.
Throughout the
Americas weaving of one kind or another was practised, but the craft reached
its highest development in the Andean nations. In ancient South America twining
seems to have been in use earlier than true weaving, and was used in both North
and South America for bags, belts, and other items. Almost as widespread as
twining was the use of the backstrap loom. On this simple loom a skilled
weaver can make extremely fine, although narrow, textiles. Heddle looms
appeared in Peru after about 2000 BC,
allowing wider cloth to be woven. Peruvian weavers, using cotton as well as
llama and vicuña wool, produced some of the finest textiles known, from filmy
gauzes to double-faced brocades.
In North America,
in the upper Midwest, copper was beaten into knives, awls, and other tools and
ornaments in the Late Archaic period (c. 2000 BC).
The use of copper in this region, however, was not true metallurgy, because the
metal was hammered from pure deposits rather than smelted from ore. The
earliest metallurgy in the Americas was practised in Peru about 900 BC, and this technology spread into
Mesoamerica, probably from South America, after about AD 900. Over the intervening centuries a variety of
techniques developed, among them alloying, gilding, casting, the lost-wax
process, soldering, and filigree work. Iron was never smelted, but bronze came
into use after about AD 1000.
Most effort was put into developing the working of precious metals—gold and
silver.
Among hunting
peoples leather was used extensively for clothing, tents, shields, and
containers. Wood carving was a widespread craft among Native Americans. The
peoples of the North-west Pacific Coast developed a truly distinctive style in
their wood carvings, with variations from tribe to tribe; the most famous
examples of this style are its totem poles, tall logs carved and painted
to represent the noted ancestors of a clan and figures from mythology.
Among
South-western peoples such as the Navajo, Pueblo, and Yumans, pollen,
pulverized charcoal and sandstone, and other coloured powdery materials are
distributed over a ground of sand to create symbolic sand paintings that are
used in healing rites and then destroyed.