Indian jewelry,
as it is known today, had origins that probably predate the advent of the
persons we describe as American Indians or Native Americans. However, for the
purpose of this paper we will consider prehistoric man as prehistoric Indian.
Archeological evidence shows us that stones (including turquoise), shells and
fetishes predate the Christian (epoch). Turquoise was found in Hohokam
excavations in southern Arizona that date 200 B.C., in central Mexico
approximately 600-700 B.C. and in South America ca. 900 B.C. Other beads are
even earlier. As Indian jewelry and turquoise are so closely associated this
paper will discuss both.
Turquoise as a mineral deposit is isolated to a rather limited geographical
area in the southwestern United States. Some is found in Mexico but very little
and there are some deposits in western South America. We will concentrate on
that found in the United States.
Prehistoric Indians mined turquoise and turned this product into jewelry,
primarily drilled beads and other hanging ornaments. However, archeological
findings do include applique on shell and other rock which means that it was
probably used with wood for ear decoration as well (the wood would have
deteriorated.) Extensive evidence of prehistoric mining operations have been
found in several areas to include: The Cerillos and Burro Mountain regions of
New Mexico, the Kingman and Morenci regions of Arizona and the Conejos area of
Colorado. Turquoise jewelry found in southern Mexico and in excavated mounds
east of the Mississippi have been analyzed and proclaimed to be from New
Mexico's Cerillos mining area. As this article deals with our Southwest other
mining localities are not discussed.
Turquoise, although dominant in the jewelry finds (for example several thousand
pieces of turquoise were found in Chaco Canyon), it is not the only important
jewelry find. The spiny oyster shell (Spondylus Princeps) is found in only one
area in the Western Hemisphere- off the coast of Baja California. This shell
has been found in abundance in archeological excavations of the Anasazi,
Mogollon and Hohokam of the desert southwest. It has also been found in the
same eastern mound excavations in which turquoise was also found. These finds
not only prove early man and prehistoric man's interest and use of jewelry but
it reveals important economic information. It shows the existence of trading in
his lifestyle. It also provides a glimpse into probable status levels of the
people.
One might argue that the above has little to do with the development of Indian
jewelry as we know it. However, as some (the Hopi and Pueblo cultures of the
Rio Grande) are indeed descended from the Anasazi and many believe from the
Mogollon and Mimbres as well, it seems to be a valid beginning of a historic
tracing. The Navajo, on the other hand, entered the area fairly recently. Some
say as early as the 14th century, others, as late as the early 16th. The
Navajo, whenever they arrived, had to be influenced by the existing Pueblo
cultures and later were profoundly influenced by the early Spanish. It is the
hypothesis of this writer that a study of the Navajo will give one the best
historical trial for the development of Indian jewelry in the Southwest. The
Navajo, as we will see, were instrumental in the spread of this craft to other
southwestern tribes.
The Navajo must be considered nomadic within their "Dinetah" or
homeland. They were farmers only to the extent that they would plant a crop,
leave it to the vagaries of the weather and eventually return to reap the
harvest, if any. They and their Apache cousins could be likened to the early
Mongols of the 12th and 13th centuries. They not only raided but also took,
kept and developed that of the conquered that suited them. Beaded necklaces as
a symbol of prestige, decorated "ketoh" or bow guards and concha
(concho) likely originated with their most frequent contacts, the Spanish and
their Pueblo neighbors.
The Navajo were in constant contact, some hostile, some friendly, with the
Spanish as they continued to populate the Southwest from the late 16th century
on. From these people the Indians developed a great appreciation for personal
adornment. Some of the early Spanish designs such as the Moorish inspired
crescent and the pomegranate blossom became key to Navajo jewelry design (More
on this later in the discussion of the origin of the Squash Blossom Necklace.)
In time the Spanish became dominant in the area. Although raids continued into
the 19th century, the period was better described as one of
"suspicious-cautious co- existence." It was a 200 plus year period of
close association and the sharing of the best of the several cultures. The
Navajo wore the ornaments of those they conquered or from trade with those they
could not beat. These were made from German silver (a copper-nickel-zinc
substance) that was bright and wore well, to copper, brass and to a much lesser
extent, silver. They learned to appreciate and hold dear the symbols of their
prowess or their wealth. (No doubt early Navajo wearing of a cross or the
crescent shaped naja on a rawhide necklace did not reflect their appreciation
for Christianity or for the Moorish influence on the Spanish.) Rather it was
simply an ornament of beauty and pride. And, if one person had one, others wanted
one also and if possible, something even better. Thus the pendent cross evolved
as did the naja into a multitude of variations and blendings. The simple thong
on which they were displayed gave way to stone, shell, silver or other metal
beads.
The studies regarding the actual date that the Navajo began making silver
jewelry vary. The two best works are by John Adair and subsequent research and
writings by Carl Rosnek and Joseph Stacy (see suggested reading list.) All seem
to agree that Atsidi Sani (Old Smith) was the accepted first Navajo
silversmith. He learned the blacksmith trade in the early 1850's and possibly
even dabbled in silver in the early 1860's.
After much warfare, the warlike Navajo were captured by the United States
Cavalry and marched into captivity in 1864. Approximately 8000, to include
Atsidi Sani, were sent to Ft. Sumner in eastern New Mexico where they were to
be weaned from a nomadic and warlike lifestyle and taught to be farmers. The
experiment failed and in 1868 they were returned to the four corners area, the
"Dinetah." Although this date 1868 is accepted by many, to include
the great Navajo leader of the time, Chee Dodge, as the year Atsidi Sani
learned the silver making skills, there is evidence that this is not wholly
correct. There is a tantalizing comment by a Major Henry Wallen, the Commandant
of Ft. Sumner in 1864. "Some of them are quite clever as
silversmiths." Of course he may have mistaken German silver for "real
silver." In any event Atsidi Sani wears the mantle as the first Navajo
silversmith.
The early Navajo silver work concentrated on concha (concho) belts, bracelets,
bow guards, tobacco flasks and necklaces. Rings, earrings, pins, hair
ornaments, buckles and bolos evolved from these. A full line of silver jewelry existed
throughout the reservation by the 1880's.
The earliest Navajo work consisted of hammered work with file decoration.
Turquoise, a very popular and much respected stone by the Navajo, made its
appearance in silver jewelry ca. 1880. It is important to note that turquoise,
as a jewelry item, had existed for centuries. It had been used in combination
with other stones, shells and metals long before 1880. However, the early
Indian glued or otherwise attached the turquoise to the stone, shell or metal. It
is known that Mexican silversmiths (plateros) toured the Indian pueblos and
Navajo enclaves in the early-mid 1800's selling and trading silver jewelry for
Indian products. This is the likely origin of silver ornamentation in the
Indian possession prior to ca. 1860. It is fairly certain that there was no
indigenous Navajo or pueblo silver industry.
Early Navajo smiths used Mexican and US coins for their silver. Often if they
were given a special order from a trader or local rancher or businessman they
would receive silver in the form of candlesticks, tea pots, etc. to melt for
their work. The Navajo preferred to use melted Mexican silver coins as they
were the easiest to work (.90275 fine.) Next preferred was what ever sterling
silver was available (.9025 fine.) Least desirable but the most durable was
silver from melted US coins (.900 fine.) The latter was the most readily
available source. In 1890 the United States made it unlawful to melt of deface
(such as soldering on hooks, eyes, jump rings or "doming" coins for
beads.) As this was difficult to enforce, United States coinage continued to be
used in the developing Navajo silver industry. Now that there was a demand for
materials and tools the reservation traders began to stock many of the needed
items. Although the Navajo were able to make a flux out of native materials,
the commercial flux was superior. Cutting, grinding and fine polishing
materials were commercially more desirable than home made ones. This was the
beginning of a new economy involving the Indians, traders and eastern
suppliers.
Very shortly, following Atsidi Sani's beginning Navajo silver smithing, the
craft spread across the area. He taught his sons and they taught others. The
craft made its appearance in Zuni ca. 1872. Atsidi Chon (Ugly Smith) taught his
close Zuni friend, Lanyade, the skills. The Zuni were already skilled in metal
working making items in copper, brass and iron. Research shows that a forge
existed in Zuni in 1852. It is reported (see Rosneck and Stacy) that Lanyade paid
Atsidi Chon "one good horse" for his instruction.
Lanyade learned the trade well. He began touring the various pueblos selling
his jewelry. While on Hopi First Mesa at Sichomovi, he taught the first Hopi
silversmith, Sikyatala, the skills. As Lanyade was taught by a Navajo and the
Hopi taught by Lanyade all the jewelry of the period was Navajo in style. As a
side note this is why provenance (history of origin-ownership) is so important
for 19th century jewelry in properly identifying its origin. It's too easy to
say that because it looks like Navajo work it is therefore of Navajo origin.
During these early years the use of solder was learned and developed.
Accompanying this was the skills of making silver dies. The former permitted
the artistic and permanent joining of two or more metal pieces resulting in a
multitude of design possibilities and the setting of stones. Die making was
probably adopted from the many leather tooling dies that existed and were used
by Spanish, Mexican and later Indians in both leather work as well as tin
smithing.
As the years progressed the styles that were basically of Navajo origin were
gradually modified by their pueblo students. For example: the Zuni, since
prehistoric times, were excellent lapidaries. These skills slowly changed their
work to the fine inlay and channel inlay we have come to associate with them.
However, the Hopi change occurred a bit more abruptly. In 1938 the Museum of
Northern Arizona in Flagstaff, Arizona, working with Hopi silversmiths, Paul
Saufkie and Fred Kabote, began a program of developing a style that was
exclusively Hopi. The work was interrupted by World War II. Following the war a
government grant helped a silversmith training program with the Hopi Guild. The
"overlay" technique they created involved the cutting of designs in a
heavy gauge silver sheet and then soldering this to a solid silver sheet. The
designs were usually adapted from the pottery shards found in the Sikyatki
Pueblo ruins of the 15th and 16th centuries. These pre-Hopi designs were mostly
bird motifs. The Hopi Guild also used kachina symbols, animal and clan motifs.
Today's Indian silversmiths are in many cases also goldsmiths and lapidaries as
well. They cross tribal design boundaries with a will and with abandon. No
longer can one look at a piece and say "It's Zuni style so it must be Zuni
made." The artist of today may incorporate in a single piece all the
styles available as well as his or her own innovation. Indian jewelry today
transcends tribal styles.
The Squash Blossom Necklace
When Indian
jewelry is mention the symbol that pops to mind is the squash blossom necklace.
It is the cornerstone of most Indian jewelry collections. However, most people
owning one or more pieces have no idea of its origin or meaning. The following
may help one to appreciate more fully this striking piece of jewelry.
This particular art object is truly an Indian creation. However, it developed
slowly and has roots deep in non Indian culture and history. The principle part
of the necklace is the crescent shaped pendent. This was first seen by the
Southwestern Indian as iron ornaments on the horse bridles of the Spanish
Conquistadors in the late 1500's and early 1600's. Captured or traded for,
these ornaments soon graced the necks of the local Indian populace. Their
acquisition was a matter of pride and the ornament was reproduced in the
various metals and was proudly displayed during ceremonials. These crescent
shaped pendants, originally brought from Spain, reflected the influence of
earlier Moorish conquests and the occupation of Spain. As generations came and
went, the pendent, referred to as a najahe or naja, became symbolic with the
various ceremonials. As most ceremonials were related to the agricultural cycle
the naja was associated with crop fertility.
Once silver beads came into fashion around 1880 what more logical place was
there to display the naja than on this string of beads? The earlier acquired
najas were undoubtedly hung around the owners neck by a simple thong.
The first beads were large, unornamental and round. From these, more
complicated ones developed, such as fluted beads and oval beads. Often dimes
and quarters were fastened to a silver shank and strung between the beads.
Occasionally these coins were domed, filled and made into beads.
The necklace referred to today as the Squash Blossom necklace probably didn't
originate much before 1880. This is taken from the fact that Washington Mathews
did not mention this type of jewelry in his "Navajo Silversmiths"
Second Annual Report, 1880-81. Arthur Woodard, in 1938, pointed out that the
Navajo and Zuni beads were originally Spanish-Mexican trouser and jacket
ornaments which were fashioned to resemble the pomegranate. The pomegranate was
a common Spanish decorator motif, often seen carved or painted on missions in
Mexico and often a clothing decoration. If one examined an early Navajo
"squash blossom" bead, a striking similarity would be seen to exist
between the Mexican ornament and the pomegranate Still, in spite of the
similarities, there is quite a bit of doubt that the Navajo attempted to depict
this blossom in his bead. The Navajo word for the "squash blossom"
bead is "yo ne maze disya gi" which means simply "bead that
spreads out." Nothing in the word denoted squash or pomegranate blossom.
Perhaps the word was coined by a white man who, asking a Navajo what the bead
represented, (the white man is obsessed with what something means, he is rarely
satisfied that something is simply attractive) was told that it looked like a
squash blossom (the Navajo understands the white man's obsession and often
attempts to satisfy it as painlessly as possible.) It is doubtful that the
Navajo intended that the bead represent the squash blossom.
Because the Indian ceremonials largely dealt with the agricultural cycle, and
the first jewelry was worn during these occasions, coupled with the fact that
the beads along with the chain looked like pomegranates or squash blossoms, all
have tended to portray the necklace in a crop-fertility ceremonial light.
The squash blossom necklace serves as a reminder of the close interaction
between the Pueblo and Navajo Indians since the mid-1800's. The necklace itself
is Navajo, adopted by the Zuni. Yet the incorporation of turquoise on each of the
blossoms is an advent of the Zuni later adopted by the Navajo.
This brief summary is the author's considered judgment on a subject that has
little historical documentation. Undoubtedly there are some solid truths,
particularly from the crop fertility standpoint, but equally true is the
existence of merely extrapolated conclusions.
Turquoise in Indian Jewelry
In our earlier
presentation "Turquoise, A Brief Overview and History" printed,
November 1992, the history of turquoise worldwide was discussed. We also
covered its occurrence, physical properties, various qualities, grades and a
discussion of what can and has been done to turquoise to improve its appearance
and durability. We highlighted not only stabilizing techniques and treating
techniques but also mentioned fake and synthetic turquoise.
Turquoise, as mentioned earlier has been native to jewelry in the Southwest for
over 2000 years. Then, as now the stone was deeply appreciated and held in much
reverence. No doubt the prehistoric Indians as well as the ancestors of our
current Native Americans ascribed a multitude of properties to this stone. For
example:
-The Pima of southern Arizona- Turquoise was a talisman of good fortune and
strength to renounce ailments. However, if you lost a turquoise you would be
afflicted by a physical ailment treatable only by a medicine man.
-The Zuni believed the blue turquoise was male and of the sky, the green was
female and of the earth. Most Zuni fetishes were either made of turquoise or
had turquoise properties such as eyes, mouths, or attachments of turquoise to
give it more power. Turquoise was powerful and important to most early Indian
ceremonials.
-The Rio Grande Pueblos- Most held the turquoise color came from being stolen
from the sky and preserved in stone. Their most precious idols were adorned
with turquoise. They also employ turquoise for good fortune.
-The Hopi have many traditions regarding turquoise. They, like their Rio Grande
Pueblo and Zuni contemporaries adorn their most important fetishes with
turquoise to enhance their powers. One legend has turquoise as the excrement of
lizards. The lizard is greatly respected for his above-below world connections.
They hold that turquoise can hold back the floods. (Floods were a common
problem in the desert southwest.)
-The Apache felt turquoise attached to a gun or a bow will cause the weapon to
shoot straight. It brought rain and could be found at the end of all rainbows.
It was key to the strength of their medicine men.
-The Navajo- Wearing turquoise brings good fortune to the wearer and insures
their favor with their Yeis (mediators between man and the supernatural). When
thrown into a river with the proper ceremonies it will aid in bringing rain.
Turquoise is offered to the Wind Spirit to appease him. The Navajo myth is that
when the wind is blowing it is searching for turquoise. The Navajo carve
fetishes out of turquoise for increased powers and fortunes. Turquoise is the
sacred stone and color of the South and the upper world. The Sacred Mountain of
the South, Mt. Taylor near Grants, New Mexico, is made from a mixture of
turquoise and earth. The mountains are inhabited by Turquoise Girl. Far to
lengthy for this paper, suffice to say, turquoise plays a multitude of roles in
healing ceremonies and sand paintings.
The Southwestern Indians use an abundance of turquoise in their jewelry. Some
of the turquoise is of exceptional quality and some is not even turquoise. Most
range between these extremes.
What is the best turquoise? For more on the intrinsic qualities that make up
the "best" as well as other grades and qualities, please review our
November 1992 newsletter on Turquoise (see above). But what is the best
turquoise for jewelry? Now we proceed along a different path. Lets look at the
variables as they apply.
What type of jewelry is desired? If the piece is to be "one of a
kind" competition, top investment quality, the turquoise should be gem
grade and rare (see November 1992 newsletter). The stone should compliment the
artist and the gold or silver work. The turquoise cost per carat can exceed
$40.00 per carat.
Very high quality jewelry, equal to that mentioned above and also of investment
quality will require gem grade turquoise but not necessarily rare stones. The
beauty is there but the cost is not. These stones can cost from $10.00 to
$20.00 per carat. On the surface these pieces will be equal in every respect
but one- rarity. A breathtakingly beautiful spider web cabochon of Chinese or
Tibetan turquoise can cost 75% less than a gem quality piece of Lander or Lone
Mountain turquoise for example.
If the goal is to produce, in quantity, high quality jewelry at a price the top
25% of the market can readily afford, then a very high grade to high grade
turquoise, properly selected for color, matrix balance, etc. is the goal.
Turquoise should cost in the $5.00 to $7.00 per carat range.
The vast majority of jewelry using natural turquoise is made from stones
classified as: Jewelry quality, high quality and investment quality (note: good
stones, nice luster but not sufficiently hard to preclude long term color
change.) These stones are too good to stabilize and should please nearly
everyone. Their cost will be $2.00 to $5.00 per carat.
Jewelry that involves the use of many matched cabochons or pieces of inlay
nearly always use a good quality turquoise that is stabilized so the color will
not change. A beautiful inlay or needle point necklace will loose its appeal if
the turquoise near the weavers neck begins to shade toward green because it is
absorbing skin oils while the remainder remains sky blue. Good stabilized
turquoise is usually sold by the pound as so much is wasted in cutting and
grinding. In this work the value of the turquoise is simply part of the value
of the art work and over all material cost for the piece.
Good to average quality , mine run, and stock qualities of turquoise are
stabilized and used for carving and craft shop jewelry. By and large this is an
extremely valuable area economically. It is estimated that over 70% of the
Indian crafts persons use this type turquoise either individually or as a shop
worker. The result is a beautifully balanced piece and remarkably low priced
for the craftsmanship involved. This is the quality of turquoise that created
the Indian jewelry market as we know it today. This stone is sold for
approximately $80.00 per troy pound but better color can double this.
The lowest qualities, chalk, chip stock and bulk must be stabilized to be used.
Often this turquoise is "color shot." In other words, artificially
colored. Much of this is used for assembly line manufacturing, machine stamped
work, etc. It too has a place in the market. It is sterling silver, it is
turquoise and it portrays the "Santa Fe look" at a remarkably low
price. Many collectors get their start here, liking the look and becoming
interested in the whole field. As they learn more their tastes change, almost
always upward. This type of turquoise is $20.00 to $30.00 a pound.
Fake and synthetic turquoise is often found in "Indian" jewelry made
overseas- It too is available in the United States and some of the Indians use
it. It has a place in the market also as long as its looked at as art and
craftsmanship. Look at the jewelry as you would a painting. Don't look for
material value... only the value of the art... the creation. Its cost on the
market is approximately that of the chip stock or bulk stabilized turquoise
that is discussed above.
As you can see, turquoise values range dramatically and it is not always easy
to apply a value even though it is easy to establish a cost. In other words
value often exceeds cost because of the art work/craftsmanship involved.
Sometimes turquoise must be viewed as one does an oil painting. The individual
components have little or no value individually but as a whole the art work has
significant value.
